Economic growth, energy consumption, and trade openness nexus: evidence from net energy importing middle-income countries

The study explores both the long- and short-run liaisons between three conceptual dimensions: economic growth, energy consumption, trade openness in 29 net importing middle-income economies using annual data from 1990 to 2019. We hereby assess ARDL models which examine long-run links by integrations these variables, additionally Dumitrescu-Hurlin Granger causality tests for panel individual country models, respectively. For samples, we reveal bidirectional connection growth along with unidirectional causalities consumption short run. Bidirectional positive feedback relationships stand growth- openness- full sample upper middle-middle subsample long Findings estimations significant 12, -and 6, 9 of examined.